Sociology
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Sociology is a branch of social sciences that uses systematic methods of empirical investigation<ref name="Giddens Intro"> Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum, Richard. 2007. Introduction to Sociology. Sixth Edition. New York: W.W. Norton and Company</ref><ref name="Classical Statements8">Template:Cite book</ref> and critical analysis<ref name="Classical Statements4">Template:Cite book</ref> to develop and refine a body of knowledge about human social structure and activity, sometimes with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of social welfare. Its subject matter ranges from the micro level of face-to-face interaction to the macro level of societies at large.
Sociology is a broad discipline in terms of both methodology and subject matter. Its traditional focuses have included social relations, social stratification, social interaction, culture and deviance, and its approaches have included both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. As much of what humans do fits under the category of social structure or social activity, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to such far-flung subjects as the study of economic activity, health disparities, and even the role of social activity in the creation of scientific knowledge. The range of social scientific methods has also been broadly expanded. The "cultural turn" of the 1970s and 1980s brought more humanistic interpretive approaches to the study of culture in sociology. Conversely, the same decades saw the rise of new mathematically rigorous approaches, such as social network analysis.
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[edit] History
Template:Main Sociological reasoning is much older than the term “sociology.” Sociology, including economic, political, and cultural systems, has proto-sociological origins in the common stock of human knowledge and philosophy. Social analysis has been carried out by scholars and philosophers from at least as early as the time of Plato.
The word "sociologie" was first used in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1748-1836) in an unpublished manuscript.<ref>Des Manuscrits de Sieyès. 1773-1799, Volumes I and II, published by Christine Fauré, Jacques Guilhaumou, Jacques Vallier et Françoise Weil, Paris, Champion, 1999 and 2007. See also Christine Fauré and Jacques Guilhaumou, Sieyès et le non-dit de la sociologie: du mot à la chose, in Revue d’histoire des sciences humaines, Numéro 15, novembre 2006: Naissances de la science sociale. See also the article 'sociologie' in the French-language Wikipedia.</ref>
The term was later used in 1838 by the French thinker Auguste Comte.<ref>A Dictionary of Sociology, Article: Comte, Auguste</ref> Comte had earlier used the term "social physics", but that term had subsequently been appropriated by others, notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte hoped to unify history, psychology and economics. He believed that society's acquisition of knowledge passed through three basic stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. Comte argued that if society could grasp the structure of this progress, it could prescribe suitable remedies for social ills.<ref name="comte">Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Article: Comte, Auguste</ref> Comte has come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology".<ref name="comte"/>
Sociology later evolved, as a scientific discipline, as an academic response to the challenges of modernity and modernization, such as industrialization and urbanization, that emerged in the early 19th century.
[edit] Key figures
"Classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Alexis de Tocqueville, Vilfredo Pareto, Karl Marx, Ludwig Gumplowicz, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Georg Simmel, Max Weber, and George Herbert Mead. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed religion, education, economics, law, psychology, ethics, philosophy and theology. Their theories have been applied in a variety of academic disciplines and beyond. Each key figure is typically associated with a particular theoretical perspective and orientation used to interpret and understand human behaviour.
Other significant figures include John Eldridge, Michael Burawoy, Eszter Hargittai, Zygmunt Bauman, Ulrich Beck, Howard Becker, Daniel Bell, Peter Berger, Peter Blau, Herbert Blumer, Pierre Bourdieu, Dieter Claessens, Randall Collins, Charles Horton Cooley, Lewis A. Coser, Ralf Dahrendorf, W. E. B. Du Bois, Norbert Elias, Gilberto Freyre, Michel Foucault, Herbert Gans, Harold Garfinkel, Anthony Giddens, Erving Goffman, Stuart Hall, George Homans, Bruno Latour, Thomas Luckmann, Karl Mannheim, Marcel Mauss, Robert K. Merton, Robert Michels, C. Wright Mills, Talcott Parsons, Anselm Strauss, Gabriel Tarde, W. I. Thomas, John Urry, Thorstein Veblen, Immanuel Wallerstein, and Jeffrey Weeks.
[edit] Institutionalizing sociology as an academic discipline
The discipline was in the United States taught under its own name for the first time in 1890, at the University of Kansas, Lawrence. The course, whose title was Elements of Sociology, was first taught by Frank Blackmar. It is the oldest continuing sociology course in the United States. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas, the first fully fledged independent university in the United States, was established in 1891.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The department of sociology at the University of Chicago was established in 1892 by Albion W. Small, who, in 1895, founded the American Journal of Sociology.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>
The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895, at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim, founder of L'Année Sociologique (1896). The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology) in 1904.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 1919, a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber, and in 1920 in Poland by Florian Znaniecki.
International co-operation in sociology began in 1893, when René Worms founded the Institut International de Sociologie, which was later eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association (ISA), founded in 1949.<ref>http://www.isa-sociology.org/ International Sociological Association Website </ref> In 1905, the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and in 1909 the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Society for Sociology) was founded by Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, among others.
[edit] Positivism and anti-positivism
The methodological approach towards sociology by early theorists, led by Comte, was to treat it in much the same manner as natural science, applying much the same methods as those used in the natural sciences. The emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This methodological approach, called positivism, is based on the assumption that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can come only from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific and quantitative methods.
Reactions against positivism began when German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel voiced opposition to both empiricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.<ref name="Classical Statements">Template:Cite book</ref> Karl Marx's methodology borrowed from Hegel a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, which seeks to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions.<ref name="Classical Statements2">Template:Cite book</ref> Marx maintained that appearances need to be critiqued, not simply documented.<ref name="Classical Statements2"/>
Other philosophers, including Heinrich Rickert and Wilhelm Dilthey, argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of unique aspects of human society, such as meanings, symbols, rules, norms, and values, all of which inform human cultures. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced the term antipositivism. According to this view, sociological research should concentrate on human cultural values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a subjective perspective. Weber felt that sociology should be a "science", able to identify causal relationships—especially among ideal types, or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.<ref name="Classical Statements5">Template:Cite book</ref> As a nonpositivist, however, Weber sought relationships that were not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable"<ref name="Classical Statements6">Template:Cite book</ref> as those pursued by natural scientists.
Émile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically founded empirical sociological research,<ref name="Classical Statements10">Template:Cite book</ref> both qualitative and quantitative. His empirical bent was informed by an interest in applying sociological findings to the pursuit of social progress and reform. Today, scholarly accounts of Durkheim's positivism may be vulerable to exaggeration and oversimplification.<ref name="Classical Statements11">Template:Cite book</ref>
[edit] Debates
Throughout the development of sociology, controversies have raged about how to emphasize or integrate concerns with subjectivity, objectivity, intersubjectivity and practicality in theory and research. The extent to which sociology may be characterized as a "science" has remained an area of considerable debate, which has addressed basic ontological and epistemological philosophical questions. One outcome of such disputes has been the ongoing formation of multidimensional theories of society, such as the continuing development of various types of critical theory. Another outcome has been the formation of public sociology, which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological analysis to various social groups.
[edit] Scope and topics of sociology
Although throughout the early 19th century it was primarily concerned with the social organization of complex industrial societies, sociology has now expanded into the traditional areas of anthropology, economics, and political science with the study of non-Western societies, culture, economic activity and politics (just as, in many cases, those disciplines extended into the traditional areas of sociology).
[edit] The Internet
Template:Main The Internet is of interest to sociologists in various ways. The Internet can be used as a tool for research (for example, conducting online questionnaires), a discussion platform, and as a research topic. Sociology of the Internet in the broad sense includes analysis of online communities (e.g. newsgroups, social networking sites) and virtual worlds. Organizational change is catalyzed through new media like the Internet, thereby influencing social change at-large. This creates the framework for a transformation from an industrial to an informational society (see Manuel Castells). Online communities can be studied statistically through network analysis and at the same time interpreted qualitatively through virtual ethnography. Social change can be studied through statistical demographics, or through the interpretation of changing messages and symbols in online media studies.
[edit] Research methods
Template:Main As in any field of research, methods of sociological inquiry vary. The type of methodology used to research topics in sociology is predicated upon the theoretical orientation of the researcher. The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms. Quantitative methods and qualitative methods are two main types of sociological research. Sociologists often use the quantitative methods, such as social statistics or network analysis to investigate the structure of a social process or describe patterns in social relationships. Sociologists also often use the qualitative methods such as focused interviews, group discussions and ethnographic methods to investigate social processes. Sociologists also use applied research methods such as evaluation research and assessment.
The following list of research methods is neither exclusive nor exhaustive. Researchers may adopt one or more than one type of research methodology for a research project. Types of research methods include the following:
- Archival research: sometimes referred to as "Historical Method". This research uses information from a variety of historical records such as biographies, memoirs and news releases.
- Content analysis: The contents of interviews and questionnaires are analyzed using systematic approaches. An example of this type of research methodology is known as "grounded theory." Books and mass media are also analyzed to study how people communicate and the messages people talk or write about.
- Experimental research: The researcher isolates a single social process or social phenomena and uses the data to either confirm or construct social theory. Participants (also referred to as "subjects") are randomly assigned to various conditions or "treatments", and then analyzes are made between groups. Randomization allows the researcher to be sure that the treatment is having the effect on group differences and not any extraneous factors.
- Survey research: The researcher obtains data from interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from a set of people chosen (including random selection) to represent a particular population of interest. Survey items from an interview or questionnaire may be open-ended or closed-ended.
- Life history: This is the study of the personal life trajectories. Through a series of interviews, the researcher can probe into the decisive moments or various influences in their life.
- Longitudinal study: This is an extensive examination of a specific person or group over a long period of time.
- Observation: Using data from the senses, one records information about social phenomenon or behavior. Observation techniques can be either participant observation or non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher goes into the field (such as a community or a place of work), and participates in the activities of the field for a prolonged period of time in order acquire a deep understanding of it. Data acquired through these techniques may be analyzed either quantitatively or qualitatively.
The choice of a method in part often depends on the researcher's epistemological approach to research as well as the researchers theoretical perspective. For example, researchers who are concerned with a statistical generalization to assign to a population will most likely administer structured interviews with a survey questionnaire to a carefully selected sample population. By contrast, sociologists, especially ethnographers, who are more interested in having a full contextual understanding of group members' lives will choose participant observation, observation, and open-ended interviews. Many studies combine several of these methodologies. Adopting three (3) methodologies is referred to as "triangulation".
As is the case in most disciplines, sociologists are often divided into distinctive camps of support for particular research methodologies. This is based upon the researcher's theoretical orientation. In practice, some sociologists combine different research methods and approaches, since different methods produce different types of findings that correspond to different aspects of societies. For example, quantitative methods may help describe social patterns, while qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals understand those patterns. This, however, does not mean that a qualitative approach can not identify or define patterns of behavior. Nonetheless, the method of analysis of the data obtained from a research methodology may be qualitative, quantitative or both.
[edit] Sociology and other social sciences
Sociology overlaps with varied other disciplines that also deal with the study of society. The fields of anthropology, economics, political science and psychology have influenced and have been influenced by sociology, and these fields share a great amount of history and common research interests. The distinct field of social psychology<ref>Sherif, M., and CW Sherif. An Outline of Social Psychology (rev. ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956</ref> emerged from the many intersections of sociological and psychological interests; the field is further distinguished in terms of sociological or psychological emphasis.
Today, sociology and other social sciences are better contrasted according to methodology rather than by objects of study.Template:Vague Additionally, unlike sociology, psychology and anthropology have well-established forensic components that deal with anatomy and with other scientifically documented variables that may be relevant to legal cases.
Sociobiology is the study of how social behavior and organization have been influenced by evolution and other biological process. The field blends sociology with a number of other sciences, such as anthropology, biology, zoology, and others. Although sociobiology once rapidly gained acceptance, it has generated controversy within the sociological academy. SociologistsTemplate:Who have criticized the discipline for not giving sufficient attention to the effects of society and environment on gene expression and behavior in general.
Sociological ideas are also widely used in management science, especially with regard to organizational behavior, and are applied to fields such as social work.
[edit] See also
Template:Sociology portal Template:Wikipedia-Books Template:Main
[edit] Related theories, methods and fields of inquiry
[edit] Footnotes
[edit] Bibliography
- Aby, Stephen H. Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources, 3rd edn. Littleton, CO, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1-56308-947-5 Template:Cite book
- Calhoun, Craig (ed) Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0195123715Template:Cite book
- Macionis, John J. 2004. Sociology (10th Edition). Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-184918-2Template:Cite book
- Nash, Kate. 2000. Contemporary Political Sociology: Globalization, Politics, and Power. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0631206604 Template:Cite book
- Scott, John & Marshall, Gordon (eds) A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed). Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0198609868, Template:Cite book
[edit] Further reading
- Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology
- Babbie, Earl R.. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., ISBN 0-534-62029-9 Template:Cite book
- Collins, Randall. 1994. Four Sociological Traditions. Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0195082087 Template:Cite book
- Coser, Lewis A., Masters of Sociological Thought : Ideas in Historical and Social Context, New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971. ISBN 0155551280.
- Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Sociology (5th edition), Polity, Cambridge. ISBN 0745633781 Template:Cite book
- Merton, Robert K.. 1959. Social Theory and Social Structure. Toward the codification of theory and research, Glencoe: Ill. (Revised and enlarged edition) Template:Cite book
- Mills, C. Wright, The Sociological Imagination,1959Template:Cite book
- C. Wright Mills,Intellectual Craftsmanship Advices how to Work fore young Sociologist
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- Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 1-56000-667-6 Template:Cite book
- Ritzer, George and Douglas J. Goodman. 2004. Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0072817186 Template:Cite book
- Wallace, Ruth A. & Alison Wolf. 1995. Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-036245-X Template:Cite book
- White, Harrison C.. 2008. Identity and Control. How Social Formations Emerge. (2nd ed., Completely rev. ed.) Princeton, Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691137148 Template:Cite book
- Willis, Evan. 1996. The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life, New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2367-2 Template:Cite book
[edit] External links
Template:WVS Template:Wikibooks
[edit] Professional associations
- African Sociological Association (AfSA)
- American Sociological Association (ASA)
- Australian Sociological Association (TASA)
- British Sociological Association (BSA)
- Brazilian Sociological Society (SBS) - Sociedade Brasileira de Sociologia
- Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)
- European Sociological Association (ESA)
- German Sociological Association (DGS)
- International Sociological Association (ISA)
- Indian Sociological Society (Insoso)
- Portuguese Sociological Association (APS) - Associação Portuguesa de Sociologia
- Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI)
- South African Sociological Association (SASA)
[edit] Other resources
- Internet Sociologist, a free online tutorial teaching Internet research skills for sociology students
- SocioLog, a directory of sociology resources
- SocioSite, a directory of sociology resources
- Sociology Today, an e-forum on professionals and students of Sociology
- Social Sciences and Humanities
- Template:Dmoz
- Sociologically.net, an international sociological community
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